Pancreatic cancer is a malignant tumor of the pancreas. Each year in the United States, about 37,680 individuals are diagnosed with this condition and 34,290 die from the disease each year[citation needed]. In Europe more than 60,000 are diagnosed each year. Depending on the extent of the tumor at the time of diagnosis, the prognosis is generally regarded as poor, with less than 5 percent of those diagnosed still alive five years after diagnosis, and complete remission still extremely rare. About 95 percent[citation needed] of pancreatic tumors are adenocarcinomas. The remaining 5 percent include other tumors of the exocrine pancreas (e.g., serous cystadenomas), acinar cell cancers, and pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (such as insulinomas). These tumors have a completely different diagnostic and therapeutic profile, and generally a more favorable prognosis.
Signs and symptoms
Pancreatic cancer is sometimes called a "silent killer" because early pancreatic cancer often does not cause symptoms, and the later symptoms are usually non-specific and varied. Common symptoms include:
* pain in the upper abdomen that typically radiates to the back and is relieved by leaning forward (seen in carcinoma of the body or tail of the pancreas);
* loss of appetite(anorexia), and/or nausea and vomiting;
* significant weight loss;
* painless jaundice (yellow skin/eyes, dark urine) related to bile duct obstruction (carcinoma of the head of the pancreas). This may also cause acholic stool and steatorrhea.
All of these symptoms can have multiple other causes. Therefore, pancreatic cancer is often not diagnosed until it is advanced.
Jaundice occurs when the tumor grows and obstructs the common bile duct, which runs partially through the head of the pancreas. Tumors of the head of the pancreas (approximately 60% of cases) are more likely to cause jaundice by this mechanism.
Trousseau sign, in which blood clots form spontaneously in the portal blood vessels, the deep veins of the extremities, or the superficial veins anywhere on the body, is sometimes associated with pancreatic cancer.
Clinical depression has been reported in association with pancreatic cancer, sometimes presenting before the cancer is diagnosed. However, the mechanism for this association is not known.
Risk factors for pancreatic cancer include:
* Age (particularly over 60)
* Male gender
* African-American ethnicity
* Smoking. Cigarette smoking has a risk ratio of 1.74 with regard to pancreatic cancer; a decade of non-smoking after heavy smoking is associated with a risk ratio of 1.2.
* Diets low in vegetables and fruits
* Diets high in red meat
* Obesity
* Diabetes mellitus
* Chronic pancreatitis has been linked, but is not known to be causal
* Helicobacter pylori infection
* Family history, 5-10% of pancreatic cancer patients have a family history of pancreatic cancer. The genes responsible for most of this clustering in families have yet to be identified. Pancreatic cancer has been associated with the following syndromes; autosomal recessive ataxia-telangiectasia and autosomal dominantly inherited mutations in the BRCA2 gene, Peutz-Jeghers syndrome due to mutations in the STK11 tumor suppressor gene, hereditary non-polyposis colon cancer (Lynch syndrome), familial adenomatous polyposis, and the familial atypical multiple mole melanoma-pancreatic cancer syndrome (FAMMM-PC) due to mutations in the CDKN2A tumor suppressor gene.
* Gingivitis or periodontal disease.
* Alcohol might be a risk factor – see Pancreatic cancer section in Alcohol and cancer
Diagnosis
History — Most patients with pancreatic cancer experience pain, weight loss, or jaundice.
Pain is present in 80 to 85 percent of patients with locally advanced or advanced metastic disease. The pain is usually felt in the upper abdomen as a dull ache that radiates straight through to the back. It may be intermittent and made worse by eating. Weight loss can be profound; it can be associated with anorexia, early satiety, diarrhea, or steatorrhea. Jaundice is often accompanied by pruritus and dark urine. Painful jaundice is present in approximately one-half of patients with locally unresectable disease, while painless jaundice is present in approximately one-half of patients with a potentially resectable and curable lesion. The initial presentation varies according to tumor location. Tumors in the pancreatic body or tail usually present with pain and weight loss, while those in the head of the gland typically present with steatorrhea, weight loss, and jaundice. The recent onset of atypical diabetes mellitus, a history of recent but unexplained thrombophlebitis (Trousseau's sign), or a previous attack of pancreatitis are sometimes noted. Courvoisier sign defines the presence of jaundice and a painlessly distended gallbladder as strongly indicative of pancreatic cancer, and may be used to distinguish pancreatic cancer from gallstones.
Pancreatic cancer is usually discovered during the course of the evaluation of aforementioned symptoms. Liver function tests can show a combination of results indicative of bile duct obstruction (raised conjugated bilirubin, γ-glutamyl transpeptidase and alkaline phosphatase levels). CA19-9 (carbohydrate antigen 19.9) is a tumor marker that is frequently elevated in pancreatic cancer. However, it lacks sensitivity and specificity. When a cutoff above 37 U/mL is used, this marker has a sensitivity of 77% and specificity of 87% in discerning benign from malignant disease. CA 19-9 might be normal early in the course, and could be elevated due to benign causes of biliary obstruction.
Imaging studies, such as ultrasound or abdominal CT, can be used to identify tumors. Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) is another procedure that can help visualize the tumor and obtain tissue to establish the diagnosis. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) is also used.
Treatment
Surgery
Treatment of pancreatic cancer depends on the stage of the cancer. The Whipple procedure is the most common surgical treatment for cancers involving the head of the pancreas. It can only be performed if the patient is likely to survive major surgery and if the tumor is localised without invading local structures or metastasizing. It can therefore only be performed in the minority of cases. Recent advances have made possible resection (surgical removal) of tumors that were previously unresectable due to blood vessel involvement.
Tumors of the tail of the pancreas can be resected using a procedure known as a distal pancreatectomy. Recently, localized tumors of the pancreas have been resected using minimally invasive (laparoscopic) approaches.
After surgery, adjuvant chemotherapy with gemcitabine may be offered to eliminate whatever tumor tissue may remain in the body. This has been shown to increase 5-year survival rates. Addition of radiation therapy is a hotly debated topic, with groups in the US often favoring the use of adjuvant radiation therapy, while groups in Europe do not.
Surgery can be performed for palliation, if the tumor is invading or compressing the duodenum or colon. In that case, bypass surgery might overcome the obstruction and improve quality of life, but it is not intended as a cure.
Chemotherapy
In patients not suitable for resection with curative intent, palliative chemotherapy may be used to improve quality of life and gain a modest survival benefit. Gemcitabine was approved by the US FDA in 1998 after a clinical trial reported improvements in quality of life in patients with advanced pancreatic cancer. This marked the first FDA approval of a chemotherapy drug for a non-survival clinical trial endpoint. Gemcitabine is administered intravenously on a weekly basis. Addition of oxaliplatin (Gem/Ox) conferred benefit in small trials, but is not yet standard therapy. Fluorouracil (5FU) may also be included.
On the basis of a Canadian led Phase III Randomised Controlled trial involving 569 patients with advanced pancreatic cancer, the US FDA has licensed the use of erlotinib (Tarceva) in combination with gemcitabine as a palliative regimen for pancreatic cancer. This trial compared the action of gemcitabine/erlotinib vs gemcitabine/placebo and demonstrated improved survival rates, improved tumor response and improved progression-free survival rates. The survival improvement with the combination is on the order of less than four weeks, leading some cancer experts to question the incremental value of adding erlotinib to gemcitabine treatment. New trials are now investigating the effect of the above combination in the adjuvant and neoadjuvant setting. A trial of anti-angiogenesis agent bevacizumab (Avastin) as an addition to chemotherapy has shown no improvement in survival of patients with advanced pancreatic cancer. It may cause higher rates of high blood pressure, bleeding in the stomach and intestine, and intestinal perforations.
Nutritional supplements
A phase II clinical trial studying the effect of curcumin on pancreatic cancer was completed in 2007 and the results were published in 2008. The study used eight grams per day in 21 patients and stopped treatment if the tumor size increased. The conclusion of the study was "Oral curcumin is well tolerated and, despite its limited absorption, has biological activity in some patients with pancreatic cancer."
-References From Wikipedia-
Endometrial cancer refers to several types of malignancy which arise from the endometrium, or lining of the uterus. Endometrial cancers are the most common gynecologic cancers in the United States, with over 35,000 women diagnosed each year in the U.S. The most common subtype, endometrioid adenocarcinoma, typically occurs within a few decades of menopause, is associated with excessive estrogen exposure, often develops in the setting of endometrial hyperplasia, and presents most often with vaginal bleeding. Endometrial carcinoma is the third most common cause of gynecologic cancer death (behind ovarian and cervical cancer). A total abdominal hysterectomy (surgical removal of the uterus) with bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy is the most common therapeutic approach.
Endometrial cancer may sometimes be referred to as uterine cancer. However, different cancers may develop not only from the endometrium itself but also from other tissues of the uterus, including cervical cancer, sarcoma of the myometrium, and trophoblastic disease.
Classification
Most endometrial cancers are carcinomas (usually adenocarcinomas), meaning that they originate from the single layer of epithelial cells which line the endometrium and form the endometrial glands. There are many microscopic subtypes of endometrial carcinoma, including the common endometrioid type, in which the cancer cells grow in patterns reminiscent of normal endometrium, and the far more aggressive uterine papillary serous carcinoma|papillary serous carcinoma and clear cell endometrial carcinomas. Some authorities have proposed that endometrial carcinomas be classified into two pathogenetic groups:
* Type I: These cancers occur most commonly in pre- and peri-menopausal women, often with a history of unopposed estrogen exposure and/or endometrial hyperplasia. They are often minimally invasive into the underlying uterine wall, are of the low-grade endometrioid type, and carry a good prognosis.
* Type II: These cancers occur in older, post-menopausal women, are more common in African-Americans, are not associated with increased exposure to estrogen, and carry a poorer prognosis. They include:
* the high-grade endometrioid cancer,
* the uterine papillary serous carcinoma,
* the uterine clear cell carcinoma.
In contrast to endometrial carcinomas, the uncommon endometrial stromal sarcomas are cancers which originate in the non-glandular connective tissue of the endometrium. Uterine carcinosarcoma,formerly called Malignant mixed müllerian tumor, is a rare uterine cancer which contains cancerous cells of both glandular and sarcomatous appearance - in this case, the cell of origin is unknown.
Signs and symptoms
*Vaginal bleeding and/or spotting in postmenopausal women
* Abnormal uterine bleeding, abnormal menstrual periods
* Bleeding between normal periods in premenopausal women in women older than 40: extremely long, heavy, or frequent episodes of bleeding (may indicate premalignant changes)
* Anemia, caused by chronic loss of blood. (This may occur if the woman has ignored symptoms of prolonged or frequent abnormal menstrual bleeding.)
* Lower abdominal pain or pelvic cramping
* Thin white or clear vaginal discharge in postmenopausal women.
Risk factors
# high levels of estrogen
# endometrial hyperplasia
# obesity
# hypertension
# polycystic ovary syndrome
# nulliparity (never having carried a pregnancy)
# infertility (inability to become pregnant)
# early menarche (onset of menstruation)
# late menopause (cessation of menstruation)
# endometrial polyps or other benign growths of the uterine lining
# diabetes
# Tamoxifen
# hyperplasia
# high intake of animal fat
# pelvic radiation therapy
# breast cancer
# ovarian cancer
# heavy daily alcohol consumption (possibly a risk factor)
-References From Wikipedia-